refactor!: modernize toolchain to Rust 2024 edition

- Bump workspace edition 2021 → 2024 and MSRV 1.78 → 1.85.
- Add [workspace.lints] block with project-wide rust/clippy policy:
  unsafe_op_in_unsafe_fn warn, unused_must_use deny, dbg_macro deny.
- Migrate all extern "C" blocks to unsafe extern "C" (Edition 2024 req).
- Migrate all #[no_mangle] to #[unsafe(no_mangle)] (Edition 2024 req).
- Wrap unsafe operations inside unsafe fn bodies in explicit unsafe blocks
  via cargo fix.
- Switch RefEntry::path from Vec<usize> to SmallVec<[usize; 8]> with
  serde+union features. Eliminates per-ref heap allocation for typical
  accessibility tree depths (<8) while serializing identically to the
  prior Vec form.
- Strip non-doc-comments from workspace Cargo.toml.

BREAKING CHANGE: minimum supported Rust version is now 1.85. Downstream
consumers building from source must upgrade their toolchain.

Cargo.toml

@@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ members  = ["crates/core", "crates/macos", "crates/windows", "crates/linux", "cr
 resolver = "2"
 
 [workspace.package]
-edition      = "2021"
-rust-version = "1.78"
+edition      = "2024"
+rust-version = "1.85"
 license      = "Apache-2.0"
 version      = "0.1.14" # x-release-please-version
 
@@ -18,8 +18,29 @@ tracing-subscriber = { version = "0.3", features = ["env-filter"] }
 base64             = "0.22"
 rustc-hash         = "2.1"
 libc               = "0.2"
+smallvec           = { version = "1.13", features = ["serde", "union"] }
 agent-desktop-core = { path = "crates/core" }
 
+[workspace.lints.rust]
+unsafe_op_in_unsafe_fn = "warn"
+unreachable_pub        = "allow"
+unused_must_use        = "deny"
+let_underscore_drop    = "allow"
+
+[workspace.lints.clippy]
+dbg_macro              = "deny"
+todo                   = "warn"
+needless_collect       = "warn"
+redundant_clone        = "allow"
+unwrap_used            = "allow"
+expect_used            = "allow"
+needless_pass_by_value = "allow"
+manual_let_else        = "allow"
+items_after_statements = "allow"
+collapsible_if         = "allow"
+print_stdout           = "allow"
+print_stderr           = "allow"
+
 [profile.release]
 opt-level     = "z"
 lto           = true
@@ -27,8 +48,6 @@ codegen-units = 1
 strip         = true
 panic         = "abort"
 
-# Fast build for CI: skip LTO and size optimisations, keep debug info for
-# better test failure messages. Inherits release settings not listed here.
 [profile.ci]
 inherits      = "release"
 opt-level     = 1
@@ -37,9 +56,6 @@ codegen-units = 16
 strip         = false
 debug         = 1
 
-# Dedicated profile for the FFI cdylib. Overrides panic = "abort" so
-# catch_unwind actually catches at the extern "C" boundary — the CLI
-# release profile stays abort for size reasons.
 [profile.release-ffi]
 inherits = "release"
 panic    = "unwind"

crates/core/Cargo.toml

@@ -12,3 +12,7 @@ tracing.workspace    = true
 rustc-hash.workspace = true
 base64.workspace     = true
 libc.workspace       = true
+smallvec.workspace   = true
+
+[lints]
+workspace = true

crates/core/src/adapter.rs

@@ -1,4 +1,5 @@
 use crate::{
+    PermissionReport, PermissionState,
     action::{
         ActionRequest, ActionResult, DragParams, ElementState, KeyCombo, MouseEvent, WindowOp,
     },
@@ -6,7 +7,6 @@ use crate::{
     node::{AccessibilityNode, AppInfo, Rect, SurfaceInfo, WindowInfo},
     notification::{NotificationFilter, NotificationIdentity, NotificationInfo},
     refs::RefEntry,
-    PermissionReport, PermissionState,
 };
 use std::marker::PhantomData;
 

crates/core/src/commands/check.rs

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 use crate::{
     action::{Action, ActionRequest},
     adapter::PlatformAdapter,
-    commands::helpers::{execute_ref_action, RefArgs},
+    commands::helpers::{RefArgs, execute_ref_action},
     error::AppError,
 };
 use serde_json::Value;

crates/core/src/commands/clear.rs

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 use crate::{
     action::{Action, ActionRequest},
     adapter::PlatformAdapter,
-    commands::helpers::{execute_ref_action, RefArgs},
+    commands::helpers::{RefArgs, execute_ref_action},
     error::AppError,
 };
 use serde_json::Value;

crates/core/src/commands/click.rs

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 use crate::{
     action::{Action, ActionRequest},
     adapter::PlatformAdapter,
-    commands::helpers::{execute_ref_action, RefArgs},
+    commands::helpers::{RefArgs, execute_ref_action},
     error::AppError,
 };
 use serde_json::Value;

crates/core/src/commands/clipboard_clear.rs

@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 use crate::{adapter::PlatformAdapter, error::AppError};
-use serde_json::{json, Value};
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
 
 pub fn execute(adapter: &dyn PlatformAdapter) -> Result<Value, AppError> {
     adapter.clear_clipboard()?;

crates/core/src/commands/clipboard_get.rs

@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 use crate::{adapter::PlatformAdapter, error::AppError};
-use serde_json::{json, Value};
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
 
 pub fn execute(adapter: &dyn PlatformAdapter) -> Result<Value, AppError> {
     let text = adapter.get_clipboard()?;

crates/core/src/commands/clipboard_set.rs

@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 use crate::{adapter::PlatformAdapter, error::AppError};
-use serde_json::{json, Value};
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
 
 pub fn execute(text: String, adapter: &dyn PlatformAdapter) -> Result<Value, AppError> {
     adapter.set_clipboard(&text)?;

crates/core/src/commands/close_app.rs

@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 use crate::{adapter::PlatformAdapter, error::AppError};
-use serde_json::{json, Value};
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
 
 const PROTECTED_PROCESSES: &[&str] = &["loginwindow", "windowserver", "dock", "launchd", "finder"];
 

crates/core/src/commands/collapse.rs

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 use crate::{
     action::{Action, ActionRequest},
     adapter::PlatformAdapter,
-    commands::helpers::{execute_ref_action, RefArgs},
+    commands::helpers::{RefArgs, execute_ref_action},
     error::AppError,
 };
 use serde_json::Value;

crates/core/src/commands/dismiss_all_notifications.rs

@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 use crate::{adapter::PlatformAdapter, error::AppError};
-use serde_json::{json, Value};
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
 
 pub struct DismissAllNotificationsArgs {
     pub app: Option<String>,

crates/core/src/commands/dismiss_notification.rs

@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 use crate::{adapter::PlatformAdapter, error::AppError};
-use serde_json::{json, Value};
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
 
 pub struct DismissNotificationArgs {
     pub index: usize,

crates/core/src/commands/double_click.rs

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 use crate::{
     action::{Action, ActionRequest},
     adapter::PlatformAdapter,
-    commands::helpers::{execute_ref_action, RefArgs},
+    commands::helpers::{RefArgs, execute_ref_action},
     error::AppError,
 };
 use serde_json::Value;

crates/core/src/commands/drag.rs

@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ use crate::{
     commands::helpers::resolve_ref,
     error::AppError,
 };
-use serde_json::{json, Value};
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
 
 pub struct DragArgs {
     pub from_ref: Option<String>,

crates/core/src/commands/expand.rs

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 use crate::{
     action::{Action, ActionRequest},
     adapter::PlatformAdapter,
-    commands::helpers::{execute_ref_action, RefArgs},
+    commands::helpers::{RefArgs, execute_ref_action},
     error::AppError,
 };
 use serde_json::Value;

crates/core/src/commands/find.rs

@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ use crate::{
     adapter::PlatformAdapter, commands::search_text, error::AppError, node::AccessibilityNode,
     snapshot,
 };
-use serde_json::{json, Value};
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
 
 const DEFAULT_LIMIT: usize = 50;
 

crates/core/src/commands/focus.rs

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 use crate::{
     action::{Action, ActionRequest},
     adapter::PlatformAdapter,
-    commands::helpers::{execute_ref_action, RefArgs},
+    commands::helpers::{RefArgs, execute_ref_action},
     error::AppError,
 };
 use serde_json::Value;

crates/core/src/commands/focus_window.rs

@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ use crate::{
     error::{AdapterError, AppError, ErrorCode},
     node::WindowInfo,
 };
-use serde_json::{json, Value};
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
 use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
 
 #[cfg(not(test))]

crates/core/src/commands/get.rs

@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 use crate::{adapter::PlatformAdapter, commands::helpers::resolve_ref, error::AppError};
-use serde_json::{json, Value};
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
 
 pub struct GetArgs {
     pub ref_id: String,

crates/core/src/commands/helpers.rs

@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ use crate::{
     refs_store::RefStore,
     window_lookup,
 };
-use serde_json::{json, Value};
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
 
 pub struct AppArgs {
     pub app: Option<String>,
@@ -137,8 +137,8 @@ mod tests {
     use crate::node::AppInfo;
     use crate::refs::RefMap;
     use crate::refs_test_support::HomeGuard;
-    use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicU32, Ordering};
     use std::sync::Mutex;
+    use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicU32, Ordering};
 
     struct ReleaseCountingAdapter {
         releases: AtomicU32,
@@ -215,7 +215,7 @@ mod tests {
             source_app: None,
             source_window_title: None,
             root_ref: None,
-            path: Vec::new(),
+            path: smallvec::SmallVec::new(),
         }
     }
 

crates/core/src/commands/hover.rs

@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ use crate::{
     commands::helpers::resolve_ref,
     error::AppError,
 };
-use serde_json::{json, Value};
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
 
 pub struct HoverArgs {
     pub ref_id: Option<String>,

crates/core/src/commands/is_check.rs

@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ use crate::{
     action::ElementState, adapter::PlatformAdapter, commands::helpers::resolve_ref,
     error::AppError, refs::RefEntry,
 };
-use serde_json::{json, Value};
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
 
 pub struct IsArgs {
     pub ref_id: String,
@@ -130,7 +130,7 @@ mod tests {
             source_app: None,
             source_window_title: None,
             root_ref: None,
-            path: Vec::new(),
+            path: smallvec::SmallVec::new(),
         }
     }
 
@@ -252,7 +252,7 @@ mod tests {
             source_app: None,
             source_window_title: None,
             root_ref: None,
-            path: Vec::new(),
+            path: smallvec::SmallVec::new(),
         });
         let adapter = LiveStateAdapter {
             state: Mutex::new(None),

crates/core/src/commands/key_down.rs

@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 use crate::{adapter::PlatformAdapter, commands::press::parse_combo, error::AppError};
-use serde_json::{json, Value};
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
 
 pub struct KeyDownArgs {
     pub combo: String,

crates/core/src/commands/key_up.rs

@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 use crate::{adapter::PlatformAdapter, commands::press::parse_combo, error::AppError};
-use serde_json::{json, Value};
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
 
 pub struct KeyUpArgs {
     pub combo: String,

crates/core/src/commands/list_apps.rs

@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 use crate::{adapter::PlatformAdapter, commands::search_text, error::AppError};
-use serde_json::{json, Value};
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
 
 pub struct ListAppsArgs {
     pub app: Option<String>,

crates/core/src/commands/list_notifications.rs

@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 use crate::{adapter::PlatformAdapter, error::AppError, notification::NotificationFilter};
-use serde_json::{json, Value};
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
 
 pub struct ListNotificationsArgs {
     pub app: Option<String>,

crates/core/src/commands/list_surfaces.rs

@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 use crate::{adapter::PlatformAdapter, commands::helpers::resolve_app_pid, error::AppError};
-use serde_json::{json, Value};
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
 
 pub struct ListSurfacesArgs {
     pub app: Option<String>,

crates/core/src/commands/maximize.rs

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 use crate::{
     action::WindowOp,
     adapter::PlatformAdapter,
-    commands::helpers::{window_op_command, AppArgs},
+    commands::helpers::{AppArgs, window_op_command},
     error::AppError,
 };
 use serde_json::Value;

crates/core/src/commands/minimize.rs

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 use crate::{
     action::WindowOp,
     adapter::PlatformAdapter,
-    commands::helpers::{window_op_command, AppArgs},
+    commands::helpers::{AppArgs, window_op_command},
     error::AppError,
 };
 use serde_json::Value;

crates/core/src/commands/mouse_click.rs

@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ use crate::{
     adapter::PlatformAdapter,
     error::AppError,
 };
-use serde_json::{json, Value};
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
 
 pub struct MouseClickArgs {
     pub x: f64,

crates/core/src/commands/mouse_down.rs

@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ use crate::{
     adapter::PlatformAdapter,
     error::AppError,
 };
-use serde_json::{json, Value};
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
 
 pub struct MouseDownArgs {
     pub x: f64,

crates/core/src/commands/mouse_move.rs

@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ use crate::{
     adapter::PlatformAdapter,
     error::AppError,
 };
-use serde_json::{json, Value};
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
 
 pub struct MouseMoveArgs {
     pub x: f64,

crates/core/src/commands/mouse_up.rs

@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ use crate::{
     adapter::PlatformAdapter,
     error::AppError,
 };
-use serde_json::{json, Value};
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
 
 pub struct MouseUpArgs {
     pub x: f64,

crates/core/src/commands/move_window.rs

@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ use crate::{
     action::WindowOp, adapter::PlatformAdapter, commands::helpers::resolve_window_for_app,
     error::AppError,
 };
-use serde_json::{json, Value};
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
 
 pub struct MoveWindowArgs {
     pub app: Option<String>,

crates/core/src/commands/notification_action.rs

@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 use crate::{adapter::PlatformAdapter, error::AppError, notification::NotificationIdentity};
-use serde_json::{json, Value};
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
 
 pub struct NotificationActionArgs {
     pub index: usize,

crates/core/src/commands/permissions.rs

@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-use crate::{adapter::PlatformAdapter, error::AppError, PermissionReport};
-use serde_json::{json, Value};
+use crate::{PermissionReport, adapter::PlatformAdapter, error::AppError};
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
 
 pub struct PermissionsArgs {
     pub request: bool,

crates/core/src/commands/press.rs

@@ -59,7 +59,7 @@ pub fn parse_combo(s: &str) -> Result<KeyCombo, AppError> {
             other => {
                 return Err(AppError::invalid_input(format!(
                     "Unknown modifier: '{other}'"
-                )))
+                )));
             }
         };
         modifiers.push(modifier);

crates/core/src/commands/ref_policy_tests.rs

@@ -57,7 +57,7 @@ fn snapshot_id() -> String {
         source_app: None,
         source_window_title: None,
         root_ref: None,
-        path: Vec::new(),
+        path: smallvec::SmallVec::new(),
     });
     RefStore::new().unwrap().save_new_snapshot(&refmap).unwrap()
 }

crates/core/src/commands/resize_window.rs

@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ use crate::{
     action::WindowOp, adapter::PlatformAdapter, commands::helpers::resolve_window_for_app,
     error::AppError,
 };
-use serde_json::{json, Value};
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
 
 pub struct ResizeWindowArgs {
     pub app: Option<String>,

crates/core/src/commands/restore.rs

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 use crate::{
     action::WindowOp,
     adapter::PlatformAdapter,
-    commands::helpers::{window_op_command, AppArgs},
+    commands::helpers::{AppArgs, window_op_command},
     error::AppError,
 };
 use serde_json::Value;

crates/core/src/commands/right_click.rs

@@ -1,12 +1,12 @@
 use crate::{
     action::{Action, ActionRequest},
     adapter::{PlatformAdapter, SnapshotSurface, TreeOptions, WindowFilter},
-    commands::helpers::{resolve_ref, RefArgs},
+    commands::helpers::{RefArgs, resolve_ref},
     error::AppError,
     refs::RefEntry,
     snapshot,
 };
-use serde_json::{json, Value};
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
 
 pub fn execute(args: RefArgs, adapter: &dyn PlatformAdapter) -> Result<Value, AppError> {
     let (entry, handle) = resolve_ref(&args.ref_id, args.snapshot_id.as_deref(), adapter)?;
@@ -180,7 +180,7 @@ mod tests {
             source_app,
             source_window_title: None,
             root_ref: None,
-            path: Vec::new(),
+            path: smallvec::SmallVec::new(),
         });
         RefStore::new().unwrap().save_new_snapshot(&refmap).unwrap()
     }
@@ -223,9 +223,11 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(value["action"], "right_click");
         assert_eq!(value["menu_probe"]["ok"], false);
         assert_eq!(value["menu_probe"]["error"]["code"], "ELEMENT_NOT_FOUND");
-        assert!(value["menu_probe"]["error"]["suggestion"]
-            .as_str()
-            .unwrap()
-            .contains("snapshot --surface menu"));
+        assert!(
+            value["menu_probe"]["error"]["suggestion"]
+                .as_str()
+                .unwrap()
+                .contains("snapshot --surface menu")
+        );
     }
 }

crates/core/src/commands/screenshot.rs

@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ use crate::{
     error::AppError,
 };
 use base64::Engine;
-use serde_json::{json, Value};
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
 use std::path::PathBuf;
 
 pub struct ScreenshotArgs {

crates/core/src/commands/scroll_to.rs

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 use crate::{
     action::{Action, ActionRequest},
     adapter::PlatformAdapter,
-    commands::helpers::{execute_ref_action, RefArgs},
+    commands::helpers::{RefArgs, execute_ref_action},
     error::AppError,
 };
 use serde_json::Value;

crates/core/src/commands/skills.rs

@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 use crate::error::AppError;
-use serde_json::{json, Value};
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
 
 const SKILL_DESKTOP_MAIN: &str = include_str!("../../../../skills/agent-desktop/SKILL.md");
 const SKILL_DESKTOP_REF_OBSERVATION: &str =
@@ -43,11 +43,26 @@ const SKILLS: &[Skill] = &[
         summary: "Primary guide. Snapshot/ref loop, JSON envelope, 54 commands across observation, interaction, keyboard/mouse, app lifecycle, notifications, clipboard, wait.",
         main: SKILL_DESKTOP_MAIN,
         refs: &[
-            SkillRef { rel_path: "references/commands-observation.md", body: SKILL_DESKTOP_REF_OBSERVATION },
-            SkillRef { rel_path: "references/commands-interaction.md", body: SKILL_DESKTOP_REF_INTERACTION },
-            SkillRef { rel_path: "references/commands-system.md", body: SKILL_DESKTOP_REF_SYSTEM },
-            SkillRef { rel_path: "references/workflows.md", body: SKILL_DESKTOP_REF_WORKFLOWS },
-            SkillRef { rel_path: "references/macos.md", body: SKILL_DESKTOP_REF_MACOS },
+            SkillRef {
+                rel_path: "references/commands-observation.md",
+                body: SKILL_DESKTOP_REF_OBSERVATION,
+            },
+            SkillRef {
+                rel_path: "references/commands-interaction.md",
+                body: SKILL_DESKTOP_REF_INTERACTION,
+            },
+            SkillRef {
+                rel_path: "references/commands-system.md",
+                body: SKILL_DESKTOP_REF_SYSTEM,
+            },
+            SkillRef {
+                rel_path: "references/workflows.md",
+                body: SKILL_DESKTOP_REF_WORKFLOWS,
+            },
+            SkillRef {
+                rel_path: "references/macos.md",
+                body: SKILL_DESKTOP_REF_MACOS,
+            },
         ],
     },
     Skill {
@@ -56,10 +71,22 @@ const SKILLS: &[Skill] = &[
         summary: "Embedding agent-desktop in another process via the C ABI. Build/link, error propagation, handle ownership, threading rules.",
         main: SKILL_FFI_MAIN,
         refs: &[
-            SkillRef { rel_path: "references/build-and-link.md", body: SKILL_FFI_REF_BUILD },
-            SkillRef { rel_path: "references/error-handling.md", body: SKILL_FFI_REF_ERRORS },
-            SkillRef { rel_path: "references/ownership.md", body: SKILL_FFI_REF_OWNERSHIP },
-            SkillRef { rel_path: "references/threading.md", body: SKILL_FFI_REF_THREADING },
+            SkillRef {
+                rel_path: "references/build-and-link.md",
+                body: SKILL_FFI_REF_BUILD,
+            },
+            SkillRef {
+                rel_path: "references/error-handling.md",
+                body: SKILL_FFI_REF_ERRORS,
+            },
+            SkillRef {
+                rel_path: "references/ownership.md",
+                body: SKILL_FFI_REF_OWNERSHIP,
+            },
+            SkillRef {
+                rel_path: "references/threading.md",
+                body: SKILL_FFI_REF_THREADING,
+            },
         ],
     },
 ];

crates/core/src/commands/snapshot.rs

@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ use crate::{
     error::AppError,
     snapshot, snapshot_ref,
 };
-use serde_json::{json, Value};
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
 
 pub struct SnapshotArgs {
     pub app: Option<String>,

crates/core/src/commands/status.rs

@@ -1,11 +1,11 @@
 use crate::{
+    PermissionReport,
     adapter::PlatformAdapter,
     commands::permissions::{self, PermissionsArgs},
     error::AppError,
     refs_store::RefStore,
-    PermissionReport,
 };
-use serde_json::{json, Value};
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
 
 pub fn execute(adapter: &dyn PlatformAdapter) -> Result<Value, AppError> {
     let report = adapter.permission_report();

crates/core/src/commands/toggle.rs

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 use crate::{
     action::{Action, ActionRequest},
     adapter::PlatformAdapter,
-    commands::helpers::{execute_ref_action, RefArgs},
+    commands::helpers::{RefArgs, execute_ref_action},
     error::AppError,
 };
 use serde_json::Value;

crates/core/src/commands/triple_click.rs

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 use crate::{
     action::{Action, ActionRequest},
     adapter::PlatformAdapter,
-    commands::helpers::{execute_ref_action, RefArgs},
+    commands::helpers::{RefArgs, execute_ref_action},
     error::AppError,
 };
 use serde_json::Value;

crates/core/src/commands/uncheck.rs

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 use crate::{
     action::{Action, ActionRequest},
     adapter::PlatformAdapter,
-    commands::helpers::{execute_ref_action, RefArgs},
+    commands::helpers::{RefArgs, execute_ref_action},
     error::AppError,
 };
 use serde_json::Value;

crates/core/src/commands/version.rs

@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 use crate::error::AppError;
-use serde_json::{json, Value};
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
 
 pub struct VersionArgs {
     pub json: bool,

crates/core/src/commands/wait.rs

@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ use crate::{
     refs_store::RefStore,
     snapshot,
 };
-use serde_json::{json, Value};
+use serde_json::{Value, json};
 use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
 
 pub struct WaitArgs {

crates/core/src/commands/wait_tests.rs

@@ -40,7 +40,7 @@ fn snapshot_with_one_ref() -> String {
         source_app: None,
         source_window_title: None,
         root_ref: None,
-        path: Vec::new(),
+        path: smallvec::SmallVec::new(),
     });
     RefStore::new().unwrap().save_new_snapshot(&refmap).unwrap()
 }
@@ -142,7 +142,7 @@ fn latest_ref_cache_picks_up_newer_snapshot_after_refresh() {
         source_app: None,
         source_window_title: None,
         root_ref: None,
-        path: Vec::new(),
+        path: smallvec::SmallVec::new(),
     });
     let second_id = store.save_new_snapshot(&second).unwrap();
     assert_ne!(first_id, second_id);
@@ -178,7 +178,7 @@ fn latest_ref_cache_debounces_consecutive_refreshes() {
         source_app: None,
         source_window_title: None,
         root_ref: None,
-        path: Vec::new(),
+        path: smallvec::SmallVec::new(),
     });
     let _ = store.save_new_snapshot(&other).unwrap();
 

crates/core/src/ref_alloc.rs

@@ -40,7 +40,7 @@ pub(crate) fn ref_entry_from_node(
         source_app: source_app.map(str::to_string),
         source_window_title: source_window_title.map(str::to_string),
         root_ref,
-        path: path.to_vec(),
+        path: smallvec::SmallVec::from_slice(path),
     }
 }
 
@@ -122,7 +122,6 @@ fn allocate_refs_at_path(
     config: &RefAllocConfig,
     path: &mut Vec<usize>,
 ) -> AccessibilityNode {
-    let root_ref_owned = config.root_ref_id.map(str::to_string);
     let is_interactive = INTERACTIVE_ROLES.contains(&node.role.as_str());
 
     if is_interactive {
@@ -131,7 +130,7 @@ fn allocate_refs_at_path(
             config.pid,
             config.source_app,
             config.source_window_title,
-            root_ref_owned.clone(),
+            config.root_ref_id.map(str::to_string),
             path,
         );
         node.ref_id = Some(refmap.allocate(entry));
@@ -304,7 +303,7 @@ mod tests {
 
         let save_ref = out.children[0].ref_id.as_deref().unwrap();
         let open_ref = out.children[1].children[0].ref_id.as_deref().unwrap();
-        assert_eq!(refmap.get(save_ref).unwrap().path, vec![0]);
-        assert_eq!(refmap.get(open_ref).unwrap().path, vec![1, 0]);
+        assert_eq!(refmap.get(save_ref).unwrap().path.as_slice(), [0]);
+        assert_eq!(refmap.get(open_ref).unwrap().path.as_slice(), [1, 0]);
     }
 }

crates/core/src/refs.rs

@@ -1,13 +1,16 @@
 use crate::error::AppError;
 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
+use smallvec::SmallVec;
 use std::cell::RefCell;
-use std::collections::hash_map::RandomState;
 use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::collections::hash_map::RandomState;
 use std::hash::BuildHasher;
 use std::path::{Path, PathBuf};
 use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicU64, Ordering};
 use std::time::{SystemTime, UNIX_EPOCH};
 
+pub type RefPath = SmallVec<[usize; 8]>;
+
 pub(crate) const MAX_REFMAP_BYTES: u64 = 1_048_576;
 static SNAPSHOT_COUNTER: AtomicU64 = AtomicU64::new(0);
 
@@ -33,8 +36,8 @@ pub struct RefEntry {
     pub source_window_title: Option<String>,
     #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
     pub root_ref: Option<String>,
-    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "Vec::is_empty")]
-    pub path: Vec<usize>,
+    #[serde(default, skip_serializing_if = "SmallVec::is_empty")]
+    pub path: RefPath,
 }
 
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Serialize, Deserialize)]

crates/core/src/refs_store.rs

@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 use crate::{
     error::{AdapterError, AppError},
-    refs::{home_dir, new_snapshot_id, validate_snapshot_id, write_private_file, RefMap},
+    refs::{RefMap, home_dir, new_snapshot_id, validate_snapshot_id, write_private_file},
     refs_lock::RefStoreLock,
 };
 use std::io::Read;

crates/core/src/refs_tests.rs

@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ fn entry(role: &str, name: Option<&str>) -> RefEntry {
         source_app: None,
         source_window_title: None,
         root_ref: None,
-        path: Vec::new(),
+        path: smallvec::SmallVec::new(),
     }
 }
 
@@ -43,7 +43,7 @@ fn test_get_existing() {
         source_app: Some("Finder".into()),
         source_window_title: Some("Documents".into()),
         root_ref: None,
-        path: Vec::new(),
+        path: smallvec::SmallVec::new(),
     });
     let retrieved = map.get(&ref_id).unwrap();
     assert_eq!(retrieved.pid, 42);
@@ -167,7 +167,7 @@ fn test_save_load_roundtrip_with_home_override() {
         source_app: Some("TestApp".into()),
         source_window_title: Some("Test Window".into()),
         root_ref: None,
-        path: Vec::new(),
+        path: smallvec::SmallVec::new(),
     });
     map.save().expect("save should succeed under HomeGuard");
 
@@ -195,7 +195,7 @@ fn test_refstore_snapshot_roundtrip_and_latest_pointer() {
         source_app: Some("TestApp".into()),
         source_window_title: Some("Test Window".into()),
         root_ref: None,
-        path: Vec::new(),
+        path: smallvec::SmallVec::new(),
     });
 
     let snapshot_id = store.save_new_snapshot(&map).unwrap();

crates/ffi/Cargo.toml

@@ -9,6 +9,7 @@ publish = false
 crate-type = ["cdylib", "rlib"]
 
 [dependencies]
+smallvec.workspace = true
 agent-desktop-core.workspace = true
 
 [target.'cfg(target_os = "macos")'.dependencies]
@@ -23,3 +24,6 @@ agent-desktop-linux = { path = "../linux" }
 
 [build-dependencies]
 cbindgen = "= 0.27.0"
+
+[lints]
+workspace = true

crates/ffi/examples/panic_spike.rs

@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@
 
 use std::panic::AssertUnwindSafe;
 
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "C" fn spike_panicking_entry() -> i32 {
     std::panic::catch_unwind(AssertUnwindSafe(|| -> i32 {
         panic!("synthetic panic inside extern C fn");

crates/ffi/src/actions/conversion.rs

@@ -20,95 +20,99 @@ fn direction_from_c(d: AdDirection) -> Direction {
 const MAX_MODIFIERS_PER_COMBO: u32 = 4;
 
 pub(crate) unsafe fn key_combo_from_c(k: &AdKeyCombo) -> Result<CoreKeyCombo, &'static str> {
-    let key = c_to_string(k.key).ok_or("key is null or invalid UTF-8")?;
+    unsafe {
+        let key = c_to_string(k.key).ok_or("key is null or invalid UTF-8")?;
 
-    if k.modifier_count > MAX_MODIFIERS_PER_COMBO {
-        return Err("modifier_count exceeds MAX_MODIFIERS_PER_COMBO (4)");
-    }
-    if k.modifier_count > 0 && k.modifiers.is_null() {
-        return Err("modifier_count > 0 but modifiers pointer is null");
-    }
-
-    let mut modifiers = Vec::with_capacity(k.modifier_count as usize);
-    if k.modifier_count > 0 {
-        let slice = std::slice::from_raw_parts(k.modifiers, k.modifier_count as usize);
-        for raw_modifier in slice {
-            let m = AdModifier::from_c(*raw_modifier).ok_or("invalid modifier discriminant")?;
-            let modifier = match m {
-                AdModifier::Cmd => Modifier::Cmd,
-                AdModifier::Ctrl => Modifier::Ctrl,
-                AdModifier::Alt => Modifier::Alt,
-                AdModifier::Shift => Modifier::Shift,
-            };
-            modifiers.push(modifier);
+        if k.modifier_count > MAX_MODIFIERS_PER_COMBO {
+            return Err("modifier_count exceeds MAX_MODIFIERS_PER_COMBO (4)");
         }
+        if k.modifier_count > 0 && k.modifiers.is_null() {
+            return Err("modifier_count > 0 but modifiers pointer is null");
+        }
+
+        let mut modifiers = Vec::with_capacity(k.modifier_count as usize);
+        if k.modifier_count > 0 {
+            let slice = std::slice::from_raw_parts(k.modifiers, k.modifier_count as usize);
+            for raw_modifier in slice {
+                let m = AdModifier::from_c(*raw_modifier).ok_or("invalid modifier discriminant")?;
+                let modifier = match m {
+                    AdModifier::Cmd => Modifier::Cmd,
+                    AdModifier::Ctrl => Modifier::Ctrl,
+                    AdModifier::Alt => Modifier::Alt,
+                    AdModifier::Shift => Modifier::Shift,
+                };
+                modifiers.push(modifier);
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(CoreKeyCombo { key, modifiers })
     }
-    Ok(CoreKeyCombo { key, modifiers })
 }
 
 pub(crate) unsafe fn action_from_c(action: &AdAction) -> Result<Action, &'static str> {
-    let kind = AdActionKind::from_c(action.kind).ok_or("invalid action kind discriminant")?;
-    match kind {
-        AdActionKind::Click => Ok(Action::Click),
-        AdActionKind::DoubleClick => Ok(Action::DoubleClick),
-        AdActionKind::RightClick => Ok(Action::RightClick),
-        AdActionKind::TripleClick => Ok(Action::TripleClick),
-        AdActionKind::SetFocus => Ok(Action::SetFocus),
-        AdActionKind::Expand => Ok(Action::Expand),
-        AdActionKind::Collapse => Ok(Action::Collapse),
-        AdActionKind::Toggle => Ok(Action::Toggle),
-        AdActionKind::Check => Ok(Action::Check),
-        AdActionKind::Uncheck => Ok(Action::Uncheck),
-        AdActionKind::ScrollTo => Ok(Action::ScrollTo),
-        AdActionKind::Clear => Ok(Action::Clear),
-        AdActionKind::Hover => Ok(Action::Hover),
-        AdActionKind::SetValue => {
-            let text = c_to_string(action.text).ok_or("text is null or invalid UTF-8")?;
-            Ok(Action::SetValue(text))
-        }
-        AdActionKind::Select => {
-            let text = c_to_string(action.text).ok_or("text is null or invalid UTF-8")?;
-            Ok(Action::Select(text))
-        }
-        AdActionKind::TypeText => {
-            let text = c_to_string(action.text).ok_or("text is null or invalid UTF-8")?;
-            Ok(Action::TypeText(text))
-        }
-        AdActionKind::Scroll => {
-            let raw_dir = AdDirection::from_c(action.scroll.direction)
-                .ok_or("invalid scroll direction discriminant")?;
-            let dir = direction_from_c(raw_dir);
-            Ok(Action::Scroll(dir, action.scroll.amount))
-        }
-        AdActionKind::PressKey => {
-            let combo = key_combo_from_c(&action.key)?;
-            Ok(Action::PressKey(combo))
-        }
-        AdActionKind::KeyDown => {
-            let combo = key_combo_from_c(&action.key)?;
-            Ok(Action::KeyDown(combo))
-        }
-        AdActionKind::KeyUp => {
-            let combo = key_combo_from_c(&action.key)?;
-            Ok(Action::KeyUp(combo))
-        }
-        AdActionKind::Drag => {
-            let params = CoreDragParams {
-                from: CorePoint {
-                    x: action.drag.from.x,
-                    y: action.drag.from.y,
-                },
-                to: CorePoint {
-                    x: action.drag.to.x,
-                    y: action.drag.to.y,
-                },
-                duration_ms: if action.drag.duration_ms == 0 {
-                    None
-                } else {
-                    Some(action.drag.duration_ms)
-                },
-            };
-            Ok(Action::Drag(params))
+    unsafe {
+        let kind = AdActionKind::from_c(action.kind).ok_or("invalid action kind discriminant")?;
+        match kind {
+            AdActionKind::Click => Ok(Action::Click),
+            AdActionKind::DoubleClick => Ok(Action::DoubleClick),
+            AdActionKind::RightClick => Ok(Action::RightClick),
+            AdActionKind::TripleClick => Ok(Action::TripleClick),
+            AdActionKind::SetFocus => Ok(Action::SetFocus),
+            AdActionKind::Expand => Ok(Action::Expand),
+            AdActionKind::Collapse => Ok(Action::Collapse),
+            AdActionKind::Toggle => Ok(Action::Toggle),
+            AdActionKind::Check => Ok(Action::Check),
+            AdActionKind::Uncheck => Ok(Action::Uncheck),
+            AdActionKind::ScrollTo => Ok(Action::ScrollTo),
+            AdActionKind::Clear => Ok(Action::Clear),
+            AdActionKind::Hover => Ok(Action::Hover),
+            AdActionKind::SetValue => {
+                let text = c_to_string(action.text).ok_or("text is null or invalid UTF-8")?;
+                Ok(Action::SetValue(text))
+            }
+            AdActionKind::Select => {
+                let text = c_to_string(action.text).ok_or("text is null or invalid UTF-8")?;
+                Ok(Action::Select(text))
+            }
+            AdActionKind::TypeText => {
+                let text = c_to_string(action.text).ok_or("text is null or invalid UTF-8")?;
+                Ok(Action::TypeText(text))
+            }
+            AdActionKind::Scroll => {
+                let raw_dir = AdDirection::from_c(action.scroll.direction)
+                    .ok_or("invalid scroll direction discriminant")?;
+                let dir = direction_from_c(raw_dir);
+                Ok(Action::Scroll(dir, action.scroll.amount))
+            }
+            AdActionKind::PressKey => {
+                let combo = key_combo_from_c(&action.key)?;
+                Ok(Action::PressKey(combo))
+            }
+            AdActionKind::KeyDown => {
+                let combo = key_combo_from_c(&action.key)?;
+                Ok(Action::KeyDown(combo))
+            }
+            AdActionKind::KeyUp => {
+                let combo = key_combo_from_c(&action.key)?;
+                Ok(Action::KeyUp(combo))
+            }
+            AdActionKind::Drag => {
+                let params = CoreDragParams {
+                    from: CorePoint {
+                        x: action.drag.from.x,
+                        y: action.drag.from.y,
+                    },
+                    to: CorePoint {
+                        x: action.drag.to.x,
+                        y: action.drag.to.y,
+                    },
+                    duration_ms: if action.drag.duration_ms == 0 {
+                        None
+                    } else {
+                        Some(action.drag.duration_ms)
+                    },
+                };
+                Ok(Action::Drag(params))
+            }
         }
     }
 }

crates/ffi/src/actions/execute.rs

@@ -1,9 +1,9 @@
+use crate::AdAdapter;
 use crate::actions::conversion::action_from_c;
 use crate::actions::result::action_result_to_c;
 use crate::error::{self, AdResult};
 use crate::ffi_try::trap_panic;
 use crate::types::{AdAction, AdActionResult, AdNativeHandle, AdPolicyKind};
-use crate::AdAdapter;
 use agent_desktop_core::{action::ActionRequest, adapter::NativeHandle};
 
 /// # Safety
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ use agent_desktop_core::{action::ActionRequest, adapter::NativeHandle};
 /// `handle` must be a non-null pointer to a valid `AdNativeHandle`.
 /// `action` must be a non-null pointer to a valid `AdAction`.
 /// `out` must be a non-null pointer to an `AdActionResult` to write the result into.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_execute_action(
     adapter: *const AdAdapter,
     handle: *const AdNativeHandle,
@@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_execute_action(
 /// `handle` must be a non-null pointer to a valid `AdNativeHandle`.
 /// `action` must be a non-null pointer to a valid `AdAction`.
 /// `out` must be a non-null pointer to an `AdActionResult` to write the result into.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_execute_action_with_policy(
     adapter: *const AdAdapter,
     handle: *const AdNativeHandle,

crates/ffi/src/actions/native_handle.rs

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
-use crate::error::{set_last_error, AdResult};
+use crate::AdAdapter;
+use crate::error::{AdResult, set_last_error};
 use crate::ffi_try::trap_panic;
 use crate::types::AdNativeHandle;
-use crate::AdAdapter;
 use agent_desktop_core::adapter::NativeHandle;
 
 /// Releases a handle previously returned by `ad_resolve_element` and
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ use agent_desktop_core::adapter::NativeHandle;
 /// `handle` must be null or a `*mut AdNativeHandle` previously
 /// populated by `ad_resolve_element`. On return `(*handle).ptr` is
 /// `NULL` so a double-call is a no-op instead of a double-free.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_free_handle(
     adapter: *const AdAdapter,
     handle: *mut AdNativeHandle,

crates/ffi/src/actions/resolve.rs

@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
+use crate::AdAdapter;
 use crate::convert::string::{c_to_string, try_c_to_string};
 use crate::error::{self, AdResult};
 use crate::ffi_try::trap_panic;
 use crate::types::{AdNativeHandle, AdRefEntry};
-use crate::AdAdapter;
 use agent_desktop_core::refs::RefEntry as CoreRefEntry;
 
 /// # Safety
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ use agent_desktop_core::refs::RefEntry as CoreRefEntry;
 /// `adapter` must be a non-null pointer returned by `ad_adapter_create`.
 /// `entry` must be a non-null pointer to a valid `AdRefEntry`.
 /// `out` must be a non-null pointer to an `AdNativeHandle` to write the result into.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_resolve_element(
     adapter: *const AdAdapter,
     entry: *const AdRefEntry,
@@ -68,7 +68,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_resolve_element(
             source_app: None,
             source_window_title: None,
             root_ref: None,
-            path: Vec::new(),
+            path: smallvec::SmallVec::new(),
         };
         match adapter.inner.resolve_element(&core_entry) {
             Ok(handle) => {

crates/ffi/src/actions/result.rs

@@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ pub(crate) fn action_result_to_c(r: &CoreActionResult) -> AdActionResult {
 ///
 /// `result` must be a pointer to an `AdActionResult` previously written by `ad_execute_action`,
 /// or null. After this call all pointers inside the struct are invalid.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_free_action_result(result: *mut AdActionResult) {
     crate::ffi_try::trap_panic_void(|| unsafe {
         if result.is_null() {

crates/ffi/src/adapter.rs

@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 use crate::error::{self, AdResult};
 use crate::ffi_try::{trap_panic, trap_panic_ptr, trap_panic_void};
-use agent_desktop_core::{adapter::PlatformAdapter, PermissionState};
+use agent_desktop_core::{PermissionState, adapter::PlatformAdapter};
 
 pub struct AdAdapter {
     pub(crate) inner: Box<dyn PlatformAdapter>,
@@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ fn build_adapter() -> Box<dyn PlatformAdapter> {
 /// The returned pointer is owned by the caller and must be released with
 /// `ad_adapter_destroy`. Creating and destroying adapters is cheap; the
 /// common pattern is one adapter per process lifetime.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "C" fn ad_adapter_create() -> *mut AdAdapter {
     trap_panic_ptr(|| {
         let adapter = AdAdapter {
@@ -47,7 +47,7 @@ pub extern "C" fn ad_adapter_create() -> *mut AdAdapter {
 ///
 /// `adapter` must be a pointer returned by `ad_adapter_create`, or null.
 /// After this call the pointer is invalid and must not be used.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_adapter_destroy(adapter: *mut AdAdapter) {
     trap_panic_void(|| {
         if !adapter.is_null() {
@@ -60,7 +60,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_adapter_destroy(adapter: *mut AdAdapter) {
 ///
 /// `adapter` must be a non-null pointer returned by `ad_adapter_create` that
 /// has not yet been destroyed.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_check_permissions(adapter: *const AdAdapter) -> AdResult {
     trap_panic(|| {
         crate::pointer_guard::guard_non_null!(adapter, c"adapter is null");

crates/ffi/src/apps/close.rs

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
-use crate::convert::string::c_to_string;
-use crate::error::{set_last_error, AdResult};
-use crate::ffi_try::trap_panic;
 use crate::AdAdapter;
+use crate::convert::string::c_to_string;
+use crate::error::{AdResult, set_last_error};
+use crate::ffi_try::trap_panic;
 use std::os::raw::c_char;
 
 /// Closes the application identified by `id` (bundle id on macOS,
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ use std::os::raw::c_char;
 ///
 /// # Safety
 /// `adapter` must be non-null. `id` must be a non-null UTF-8 C string.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_close_app(
     adapter: *const AdAdapter,
     id: *const c_char,

crates/ffi/src/apps/launch.rs

@@ -1,9 +1,9 @@
+use crate::AdAdapter;
 use crate::convert::string::c_to_string;
 use crate::convert::window::window_info_to_c;
-use crate::error::{set_last_error, AdResult};
+use crate::error::{AdResult, set_last_error};
 use crate::ffi_try::trap_panic;
 use crate::types::AdWindowInfo;
-use crate::AdAdapter;
 use std::os::raw::c_char;
 
 /// Launches the application identified by `id` (bundle id on macOS,
@@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ use std::os::raw::c_char;
 /// # Safety
 /// `adapter` must be non-null. `id` must be a non-null UTF-8 C string.
 /// `out` must be a non-null writable `*mut AdWindowInfo`.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_launch_app(
     adapter: *const AdAdapter,
     id: *const c_char,

crates/ffi/src/apps/list.rs

@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
+use crate::AdAdapter;
 use crate::convert::app::{app_info_to_c, free_app_info_fields};
-use crate::error::{set_last_error, AdResult};
+use crate::error::{AdResult, set_last_error};
 use crate::ffi_try::{trap_panic, trap_panic_void};
 use crate::types::{AdAppInfo, AdAppList};
-use crate::AdAdapter;
 use std::ptr;
 
 /// # Safety
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ use std::ptr;
 /// `out` must be a valid writable `*mut *mut AdAppList`.
 /// On success, `*out` is a newly-allocated opaque list freed with
 /// `ad_app_list_free`. On error, `*out` is null and last-error is set.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_list_apps(
     adapter: *const AdAdapter,
     out: *mut *mut AdAppList,
@@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_list_apps(
 
 /// # Safety
 /// `list` must be null or a pointer returned by `ad_list_apps`.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_app_list_count(list: *const AdAppList) -> u32 {
     if list.is_null() {
         return 0;
@@ -56,7 +56,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_app_list_count(list: *const AdAppList) -> u32 {
 ///
 /// # Safety
 /// `list` must be null or a pointer returned by `ad_list_apps`.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_app_list_get(list: *const AdAppList, index: u32) -> *const AdAppInfo {
     if list.is_null() {
         return ptr::null();
@@ -73,7 +73,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_app_list_get(list: *const AdAppList, index: u32) ->
 ///
 /// # Safety
 /// `list` must be null or a pointer returned by `ad_list_apps`.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_app_list_free(list: *mut AdAppList) {
     trap_panic_void(|| unsafe {
         if list.is_null() {

crates/ffi/src/convert/app.rs

@@ -13,10 +13,12 @@ pub(crate) fn app_info_to_c(a: &AppInfo) -> AdAppInfo {
 }
 
 pub(crate) unsafe fn free_app_info_fields(a: &mut AdAppInfo) {
-    free_c_string(a.name as *mut c_char);
-    free_c_string(a.bundle_id as *mut c_char);
-    a.name = ptr::null();
-    a.bundle_id = ptr::null();
+    unsafe {
+        free_c_string(a.name as *mut c_char);
+        free_c_string(a.bundle_id as *mut c_char);
+        a.name = ptr::null();
+        a.bundle_id = ptr::null();
+    }
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]

crates/ffi/src/convert/notification.rs

@@ -17,15 +17,17 @@ pub(crate) fn notification_info_to_c(info: &NotificationInfo) -> AdNotificationI
 }
 
 pub(crate) unsafe fn free_notification_info_fields(info: &mut AdNotificationInfo) {
-    free_c_string(info.app_name as *mut c_char);
-    free_c_string(info.title as *mut c_char);
-    free_c_string(info.body as *mut c_char);
-    free_c_string_array(info.actions, info.action_count);
-    info.app_name = ptr::null();
-    info.title = ptr::null();
-    info.body = ptr::null();
-    info.actions = ptr::null_mut();
-    info.action_count = 0;
+    unsafe {
+        free_c_string(info.app_name as *mut c_char);
+        free_c_string(info.title as *mut c_char);
+        free_c_string(info.body as *mut c_char);
+        free_c_string_array(info.actions, info.action_count);
+        info.app_name = ptr::null();
+        info.title = ptr::null();
+        info.body = ptr::null();
+        info.actions = ptr::null_mut();
+        info.action_count = 0;
+    }
 }
 
 fn strings_to_c_array(strings: &[String]) -> (*mut *mut c_char, u32) {
@@ -41,15 +43,17 @@ fn strings_to_c_array(strings: &[String]) -> (*mut *mut c_char, u32) {
 }
 
 unsafe fn free_c_string_array(arr: *mut *mut c_char, count: u32) {
-    if arr.is_null() {
-        return;
+    unsafe {
+        if arr.is_null() {
+            return;
+        }
+        let slice = std::slice::from_raw_parts_mut(arr, count as usize);
+        for p in slice.iter_mut() {
+            free_c_string(*p);
+        }
+        drop(Box::from_raw(std::ptr::slice_from_raw_parts_mut(
+            arr,
+            count as usize,
+        )));
     }
-    let slice = std::slice::from_raw_parts_mut(arr, count as usize);
-    for p in slice.iter_mut() {
-        free_c_string(*p);
-    }
-    drop(Box::from_raw(std::ptr::slice_from_raw_parts_mut(
-        arr,
-        count as usize,
-    )));
 }

crates/ffi/src/convert/string.rs

@@ -36,16 +36,20 @@ pub(crate) fn opt_string_to_c(s: Option<&str>) -> *mut c_char {
 }
 
 pub(crate) unsafe fn free_c_string(ptr: *mut c_char) {
-    if !ptr.is_null() {
-        drop(CString::from_raw(ptr));
+    unsafe {
+        if !ptr.is_null() {
+            drop(CString::from_raw(ptr));
+        }
     }
 }
 
 pub(crate) unsafe fn c_to_string(ptr: *const c_char) -> Option<String> {
-    if ptr.is_null() {
-        return None;
+    unsafe {
+        if ptr.is_null() {
+            return None;
+        }
+        CStr::from_ptr(ptr).to_str().ok().map(str::to_owned)
     }
-    CStr::from_ptr(ptr).to_str().ok().map(str::to_owned)
 }
 
 /// Tri-state decode of a foreign C string used for optional filter
@@ -62,12 +66,14 @@ pub(crate) unsafe fn c_to_string(ptr: *const c_char) -> Option<String> {
 /// # Safety
 /// `ptr` must be null or a NUL-terminated C string.
 pub(crate) unsafe fn try_c_to_string(ptr: *const c_char) -> Result<Option<String>, ()> {
-    if ptr.is_null() {
-        return Ok(None);
-    }
-    match CStr::from_ptr(ptr).to_str() {
-        Ok(s) => Ok(Some(s.to_owned())),
-        Err(_) => Err(()),
+    unsafe {
+        if ptr.is_null() {
+            return Ok(None);
+        }
+        match CStr::from_ptr(ptr).to_str() {
+            Ok(s) => Ok(Some(s.to_owned())),
+            Err(_) => Err(()),
+        }
     }
 }
 

crates/ffi/src/convert/surface.rs

@@ -13,10 +13,12 @@ pub(crate) fn surface_info_to_c(s: &SurfaceInfo) -> AdSurfaceInfo {
 }
 
 pub(crate) unsafe fn free_surface_info_fields(s: &mut AdSurfaceInfo) {
-    free_c_string(s.kind as *mut c_char);
-    free_c_string(s.title as *mut c_char);
-    s.kind = ptr::null();
-    s.title = ptr::null();
+    unsafe {
+        free_c_string(s.kind as *mut c_char);
+        free_c_string(s.title as *mut c_char);
+        s.kind = ptr::null();
+        s.title = ptr::null();
+    }
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]

crates/ffi/src/convert/window.rs

@@ -30,12 +30,14 @@ pub(crate) fn window_info_to_c(w: &WindowInfo) -> AdWindowInfo {
 }
 
 pub(crate) unsafe fn free_window_info_fields(w: &mut AdWindowInfo) {
-    free_c_string(w.id as *mut c_char);
-    free_c_string(w.title as *mut c_char);
-    free_c_string(w.app_name as *mut c_char);
-    w.id = ptr::null();
-    w.title = ptr::null();
-    w.app_name = ptr::null();
+    unsafe {
+        free_c_string(w.id as *mut c_char);
+        free_c_string(w.title as *mut c_char);
+        free_c_string(w.app_name as *mut c_char);
+        w.id = ptr::null();
+        w.title = ptr::null();
+        w.app_name = ptr::null();
+    }
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]

crates/ffi/src/error.rs

@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 use agent_desktop_core::error::{AdapterError, ErrorCode};
 use std::cell::RefCell;
-use std::ffi::{c_char, CStr, CString};
+use std::ffi::{CStr, CString, c_char};
 
 const fn error_code_variant_count() -> usize {
     let mut count = 0;
@@ -215,7 +215,7 @@ pub(crate) fn last_error_code() -> AdResult {
 /// leaks to Thread B.
 /// Returns the `AdResult` code of the last error on the calling thread,
 /// or `AD_RESULT_OK` if no error has been recorded.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "C" fn ad_last_error_code() -> AdResult {
     crate::ffi_try::trap_panic(last_error_code)
 }
@@ -224,7 +224,7 @@ pub extern "C" fn ad_last_error_code() -> AdResult {
 /// error has been recorded on the calling thread. The pointer remains
 /// valid across any number of subsequent *successful* FFI calls; only
 /// the next failing call overwrites it.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "C" fn ad_last_error_message() -> *const c_char {
     crate::ffi_try::trap_panic_const_ptr(|| {
         LAST_ERROR.with(|cell| {
@@ -239,7 +239,7 @@ pub extern "C" fn ad_last_error_message() -> *const c_char {
 /// Returns a borrowed C string with a human-readable suggestion for how
 /// to recover from the last error, or null if the adapter didn't emit
 /// one. Same lifetime rules as `ad_last_error_message`.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "C" fn ad_last_error_suggestion() -> *const c_char {
     crate::ffi_try::trap_panic_const_ptr(|| {
         LAST_ERROR.with(|cell| {
@@ -255,7 +255,7 @@ pub extern "C" fn ad_last_error_suggestion() -> *const c_char {
 /// for the last error (AX error codes, COM HRESULTs, AT-SPI messages,
 /// etc.), or null if the adapter didn't supply one. Same lifetime rules
 /// as `ad_last_error_message`.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub extern "C" fn ad_last_error_platform_detail() -> *const c_char {
     crate::ffi_try::trap_panic_const_ptr(|| {
         LAST_ERROR.with(|cell| {

crates/ffi/src/ffi_try.rs

@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
-use crate::error::{set_last_error_static, AdResult};
+use crate::error::{AdResult, set_last_error_static};
 use std::ffi::CStr;
-use std::panic::{catch_unwind, AssertUnwindSafe};
+use std::panic::{AssertUnwindSafe, catch_unwind};
 
 static PANIC_MESSAGE: &CStr = c"rust panic in FFI boundary";
 

crates/ffi/src/input/clipboard.rs

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
+use crate::AdAdapter;
 use crate::convert::string::{c_to_string, free_c_string, string_to_c};
 use crate::error::{self, AdResult};
 use crate::ffi_try::{trap_panic, trap_panic_void};
-use crate::AdAdapter;
 use std::os::raw::c_char;
 
 /// Reads the current clipboard text and writes an owned C string into
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ use std::os::raw::c_char;
 /// # Safety
 /// `adapter` must be a non-null pointer returned by `ad_adapter_create`.
 /// `out` must be a non-null writable `*mut *mut c_char`.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_get_clipboard(
     adapter: *const AdAdapter,
     out: *mut *mut c_char,
@@ -28,12 +28,10 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_get_clipboard(
             Ok(text) => {
                 let c = string_to_c(&text);
                 if c.is_null() {
-                    error::set_last_error(
-                        &agent_desktop_core::error::AdapterError::new(
-                            agent_desktop_core::error::ErrorCode::Internal,
-                            "clipboard text contains an interior NUL and cannot be represented as a C string",
-                        ),
-                    );
+                    error::set_last_error(&agent_desktop_core::error::AdapterError::new(
+                        agent_desktop_core::error::ErrorCode::Internal,
+                        "clipboard text contains an interior NUL and cannot be represented as a C string",
+                    ));
                     return AdResult::ErrInternal;
                 }
                 *out = c;
@@ -53,7 +51,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_get_clipboard(
 /// # Safety
 /// `adapter` must be a non-null pointer returned by `ad_adapter_create`.
 /// `text` must be a non-null, NUL-terminated UTF-8 C string.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_set_clipboard(
     adapter: *const AdAdapter,
     text: *const c_char,
@@ -88,7 +86,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_set_clipboard(
 ///
 /// # Safety
 /// `adapter` must be a non-null pointer returned by `ad_adapter_create`.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_clear_clipboard(adapter: *const AdAdapter) -> AdResult {
     trap_panic(|| unsafe {
         if let Err(rc) = crate::main_thread::require_main_thread() {
@@ -113,7 +111,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_clear_clipboard(adapter: *const AdAdapter) -> AdResu
 /// # Safety
 /// `s` must be null or a pointer previously handed out by this crate.
 /// After this call the pointer is invalid and must not be used.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_free_string(s: *mut c_char) {
     trap_panic_void(|| unsafe { free_c_string(s) })
 }

crates/ffi/src/input/drag.rs

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
+use crate::AdAdapter;
 use crate::error::{self, AdResult};
 use crate::ffi_try::trap_panic;
 use crate::types::AdDragParams;
-use crate::AdAdapter;
 use agent_desktop_core::action::{DragParams as CoreDragParams, Point as CorePoint};
 
 /// Synthesizes a mouse drag from `params.from` to `params.to`. When
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ use agent_desktop_core::action::{DragParams as CoreDragParams, Point as CorePoin
 /// # Safety
 /// `adapter` must be a non-null pointer returned by `ad_adapter_create`.
 /// `params` must be a non-null pointer to a valid `AdDragParams`.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_drag(
     adapter: *const AdAdapter,
     params: *const AdDragParams,

crates/ffi/src/input/mouse.rs

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
+use crate::AdAdapter;
 use crate::error::{self, AdResult};
 use crate::ffi_try::trap_panic;
 use crate::types::{AdMouseButton, AdMouseEvent, AdMouseEventKind};
-use crate::AdAdapter;
 use agent_desktop_core::action::{
     MouseButton as CoreMouseButton, MouseEvent as CoreMouseEvent,
     MouseEventKind as CoreMouseEventKind, Point as CorePoint,
@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ pub(crate) fn mouse_button_from_c(b: AdMouseButton) -> CoreMouseButton {
 /// # Safety
 /// `adapter` must be a non-null pointer returned by `ad_adapter_create`.
 /// `event` must be a non-null pointer to a valid `AdMouseEvent`.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_mouse_event(
     adapter: *const AdAdapter,
     event: *const AdMouseEvent,

crates/ffi/src/main_thread.rs

@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@
 //! / `ad_free_string` / `ad_free_action_result` / `ad_free_tree` family.
 //! Those paths touch no AX/Cocoa state and are safe from any thread.
 
-use crate::error::{set_last_error_static, AdResult};
+use crate::error::{AdResult, set_last_error_static};
 use std::ffi::CStr;
 
 static OFF_MAIN_THREAD_MESSAGE: &CStr =

crates/ffi/src/notifications/action.rs

@@ -1,9 +1,9 @@
+use crate::AdAdapter;
 use crate::actions::result::action_result_to_c;
 use crate::convert::string::{c_to_string, decode_optional_filter};
-use crate::error::{set_last_error, AdResult};
+use crate::error::{AdResult, set_last_error};
 use crate::ffi_try::trap_panic;
 use crate::types::AdActionResult;
-use crate::AdAdapter;
 use agent_desktop_core::notification::NotificationIdentity;
 use std::os::raw::c_char;
 
@@ -34,7 +34,7 @@ use std::os::raw::c_char;
 /// is rejected with `AD_RESULT_ERR_INVALID_ARGS` rather than silently
 /// treated as "no fingerprint". `out` must be a valid writable
 /// `*mut AdActionResult`; on error it is zero-initialized.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_notification_action(
     adapter: *const AdAdapter,
     index: u32,

crates/ffi/src/notifications/dismiss.rs

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
-use crate::convert::string::decode_optional_filter;
-use crate::error::{set_last_error, AdResult};
-use crate::ffi_try::trap_panic;
 use crate::AdAdapter;
+use crate::convert::string::decode_optional_filter;
+use crate::error::{AdResult, set_last_error};
+use crate::ffi_try::trap_panic;
 use std::os::raw::c_char;
 
 /// Dismisses the notification at `index`. Indexes are only valid within
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ use std::os::raw::c_char;
 ///
 /// # Safety
 /// `adapter` must be valid. `app_filter` may be null.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_dismiss_notification(
     adapter: *const AdAdapter,
     index: u32,

crates/ffi/src/notifications/dismiss_all.rs

@@ -1,10 +1,10 @@
+use crate::AdAdapter;
 use crate::convert::notification::notification_info_to_c;
 use crate::convert::string::decode_optional_filter;
-use crate::error::{set_last_error, AdResult};
+use crate::error::{AdResult, set_last_error};
 use crate::ffi_try::trap_panic;
 use crate::notifications::list::ad_notification_list_free;
 use crate::types::{AdNotificationInfo, AdNotificationList};
-use crate::AdAdapter;
 use std::os::raw::c_char;
 use std::ptr;
 
@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ use std::ptr;
 /// # Safety
 /// `adapter` must be valid. `app_filter` may be null. `dismissed_out`
 /// and `failed_out` must both be valid writable `*mut *mut AdNotificationList`.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_dismiss_all_notifications(
     adapter: *const AdAdapter,
     app_filter: *const c_char,
@@ -86,7 +86,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_dismiss_all_notifications(
 /// # Safety
 /// Both arguments must be null or pointers from
 /// `ad_dismiss_all_notifications`.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_dismiss_all_notifications_free(
     dismissed: *mut AdNotificationList,
     failed: *mut AdNotificationList,

crates/ffi/src/notifications/list.rs

@@ -1,9 +1,9 @@
+use crate::AdAdapter;
 use crate::convert::notification::{free_notification_info_fields, notification_info_to_c};
-use crate::error::{set_last_error, AdResult};
+use crate::error::{AdResult, set_last_error};
 use crate::ffi_try::{trap_panic, trap_panic_void};
 use crate::notifications::filter::filter_from_c;
 use crate::types::{AdNotificationFilter, AdNotificationInfo, AdNotificationList};
-use crate::AdAdapter;
 use std::ptr;
 
 /// Lists the notifications currently on-screen.
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ use std::ptr;
 /// `adapter` must be valid. `filter` may be null. `out` must be a valid
 /// writable `*mut *mut AdNotificationList`. On success `*out` is a
 /// non-null handle freed with `ad_notification_list_free`.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_list_notifications(
     adapter: *const AdAdapter,
     filter: *const AdNotificationFilter,
@@ -58,7 +58,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_list_notifications(
 
 /// # Safety
 /// `list` must be null or a pointer returned by `ad_list_notifications`.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_notification_list_count(list: *const AdNotificationList) -> u32 {
     if list.is_null() {
         return 0;
@@ -71,7 +71,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_notification_list_count(list: *const AdNotificationL
 ///
 /// # Safety
 /// `list` must be null or a pointer returned by `ad_list_notifications`.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_notification_list_get(
     list: *const AdNotificationList,
     index: u32,
@@ -90,7 +90,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_notification_list_get(
 ///
 /// # Safety
 /// `list` must be null or a pointer returned by `ad_list_notifications`.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_notification_list_free(list: *mut AdNotificationList) {
     trap_panic_void(|| unsafe {
         if list.is_null() {

crates/ffi/src/observation/find.rs

@@ -1,9 +1,9 @@
+use crate::AdAdapter;
 use crate::convert::string::decode_optional_filter;
-use crate::error::{set_last_error, AdResult};
+use crate::error::{AdResult, set_last_error};
 use crate::ffi_try::trap_panic;
 use crate::observation::walk::find_first_match;
 use crate::types::{AdFindQuery, AdNativeHandle, AdWindowInfo};
-use crate::AdAdapter;
 use agent_desktop_core::adapter::{SnapshotSurface, TreeOptions};
 use agent_desktop_core::refs::RefEntry;
 
@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ use agent_desktop_core::refs::RefEntry;
 /// `adapter`, `win`, and `query` must be valid pointers. `out_handle`
 /// must be a valid writable `*mut AdNativeHandle`. On
 /// `AD_RESULT_ERR_ELEMENT_NOT_FOUND` the out-handle is zero-initialized.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_find(
     adapter: *const AdAdapter,
     win: *const AdWindowInfo,
@@ -102,7 +102,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_find(
             source_app: None,
             source_window_title: Some(core_win.title.clone()),
             root_ref: None,
-            path: Vec::new(),
+            path: smallvec::SmallVec::new(),
         };
         match adapter.inner.resolve_element(&ref_entry) {
             Ok(handle) => {

crates/ffi/src/observation/get.rs

@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
+use crate::AdAdapter;
 use crate::convert::string::{c_to_string, string_to_c_lossy};
-use crate::error::{set_last_error, AdResult};
+use crate::error::{AdResult, set_last_error};
 use crate::ffi_try::trap_panic;
 use crate::types::AdNativeHandle;
-use crate::AdAdapter;
 use agent_desktop_core::adapter::NativeHandle;
 use std::os::raw::c_char;
 
@@ -20,7 +20,7 @@ use std::os::raw::c_char;
 /// `adapter` must be valid. `handle` must be a non-null `AdNativeHandle`.
 /// `property` must be a non-null UTF-8 C string. `out` must be a valid
 /// writable `*mut *mut c_char`; it is null-initialized on entry.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_get(
     adapter: *const AdAdapter,
     handle: *const AdNativeHandle,

crates/ffi/src/observation/is.rs

@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
+use crate::AdAdapter;
 use crate::convert::string::{c_to_string, decode_optional_filter};
-use crate::error::{set_last_error, AdResult};
+use crate::error::{AdResult, set_last_error};
 use crate::ffi_try::trap_panic;
 use crate::types::{AdFindQuery, AdWindowInfo};
-use crate::AdAdapter;
 use agent_desktop_core::adapter::{SnapshotSurface, TreeOptions};
 use agent_desktop_core::node::AccessibilityNode;
 use std::os::raw::c_char;
@@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ use std::os::raw::c_char;
 /// # Safety
 /// All pointers must be valid. `property` must be a non-null UTF-8
 /// C string. `out` must be a valid writable `*mut bool`.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_is(
     adapter: *const AdAdapter,
     win: *const AdWindowInfo,

crates/ffi/src/screenshot/accessors.rs

@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ use std::ptr;
 ///
 /// # Safety
 /// `buf` must be null or returned by `ad_screenshot`.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_image_buffer_data(buf: *const AdImageBuffer) -> *const u8 {
     if buf.is_null() {
         return ptr::null();
@@ -20,7 +20,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_image_buffer_data(buf: *const AdImageBuffer) -> *con
 ///
 /// # Safety
 /// `buf` must be null or returned by `ad_screenshot`.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_image_buffer_size(buf: *const AdImageBuffer) -> u64 {
     if buf.is_null() {
         return 0;
@@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_image_buffer_size(buf: *const AdImageBuffer) -> u64
 ///
 /// # Safety
 /// `buf` must be null or returned by `ad_screenshot`.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_image_buffer_width(buf: *const AdImageBuffer) -> u32 {
     if buf.is_null() {
         return 0;
@@ -46,7 +46,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_image_buffer_width(buf: *const AdImageBuffer) -> u32
 ///
 /// # Safety
 /// `buf` must be null or returned by `ad_screenshot`.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_image_buffer_height(buf: *const AdImageBuffer) -> u32 {
     if buf.is_null() {
         return 0;
@@ -60,7 +60,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_image_buffer_height(buf: *const AdImageBuffer) -> u3
 ///
 /// # Safety
 /// `buf` must be null or returned by `ad_screenshot`.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_image_buffer_format(buf: *const AdImageBuffer) -> AdImageFormat {
     if buf.is_null() {
         return AdImageFormat::Png;

crates/ffi/src/screenshot/capture.rs

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
-use crate::error::{set_last_error, AdResult};
+use crate::AdAdapter;
+use crate::error::{AdResult, set_last_error};
 use crate::ffi_try::trap_panic;
 use crate::types::{AdImageBuffer, AdImageFormat, AdScreenshotKind, AdScreenshotTarget};
-use crate::AdAdapter;
 use agent_desktop_core::adapter::{ImageFormat, ScreenshotTarget as CoreScreenshotTarget};
 use std::ptr;
 
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ use std::ptr;
 /// `adapter` and `target` must be valid pointers. `out` must be a valid
 /// writable `*mut *mut AdImageBuffer`. On error `*out` is null and
 /// last-error is set.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_screenshot(
     adapter: *const AdAdapter,
     target: *const AdScreenshotTarget,

crates/ffi/src/screenshot/free.rs

@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ use crate::types::AdImageBuffer;
 /// # Safety
 /// `buf` must be null or a pointer previously returned by `ad_screenshot`.
 /// Double-free is undefined behavior.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_image_buffer_free(buf: *mut AdImageBuffer) {
     trap_panic_void(|| unsafe {
         if buf.is_null() {

crates/ffi/src/surfaces/list.rs

@@ -1,15 +1,15 @@
+use crate::AdAdapter;
 use crate::convert::surface::{free_surface_info_fields, surface_info_to_c};
-use crate::error::{set_last_error, AdResult};
+use crate::error::{AdResult, set_last_error};
 use crate::ffi_try::{trap_panic, trap_panic_void};
 use crate::types::{AdSurfaceInfo, AdSurfaceList};
-use crate::AdAdapter;
 use std::ptr;
 
 /// # Safety
 /// `adapter` must be valid. `out` must be a valid writable
 /// `*mut *mut AdSurfaceList`. Success produces a list handle freed via
 /// `ad_surface_list_free`.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_list_surfaces(
     adapter: *const AdAdapter,
     pid: i32,
@@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_list_surfaces(
 
 /// # Safety
 /// `list` must be null or a pointer returned by `ad_list_surfaces`.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_surface_list_count(list: *const AdSurfaceList) -> u32 {
     if list.is_null() {
         return 0;
@@ -55,7 +55,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_surface_list_count(list: *const AdSurfaceList) -> u3
 ///
 /// # Safety
 /// `list` must be null or a pointer returned by `ad_list_surfaces`.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_surface_list_get(
     list: *const AdSurfaceList,
     index: u32,
@@ -74,7 +74,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_surface_list_get(
 ///
 /// # Safety
 /// `list` must be null or a pointer returned by `ad_list_surfaces`.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_surface_list_free(list: *mut AdSurfaceList) {
     trap_panic_void(|| unsafe {
         if list.is_null() {

crates/ffi/src/tree/free.rs

@@ -4,41 +4,45 @@ use std::os::raw::c_char;
 use std::ptr;
 
 unsafe fn free_c_string_array(arr: *mut *mut c_char, count: u32) {
-    if arr.is_null() {
-        return;
+    unsafe {
+        if arr.is_null() {
+            return;
+        }
+        let slice = std::slice::from_raw_parts_mut(arr, count as usize);
+        for p in slice.iter_mut() {
+            free_c_string(*p);
+        }
+        drop(Box::from_raw(std::ptr::slice_from_raw_parts_mut(
+            arr,
+            count as usize,
+        )));
     }
-    let slice = std::slice::from_raw_parts_mut(arr, count as usize);
-    for p in slice.iter_mut() {
-        free_c_string(*p);
-    }
-    drop(Box::from_raw(std::ptr::slice_from_raw_parts_mut(
-        arr,
-        count as usize,
-    )));
 }
 
 unsafe fn free_node_fields(node: &mut AdNode) {
-    free_c_string(node.ref_id as *mut c_char);
-    free_c_string(node.role as *mut c_char);
-    free_c_string(node.name as *mut c_char);
-    free_c_string(node.value as *mut c_char);
-    free_c_string(node.description as *mut c_char);
-    free_c_string(node.hint as *mut c_char);
-    free_c_string_array(node.states, node.state_count);
-    node.ref_id = ptr::null();
-    node.role = ptr::null();
-    node.name = ptr::null();
-    node.value = ptr::null();
-    node.description = ptr::null();
-    node.hint = ptr::null();
-    node.states = ptr::null_mut();
-    node.state_count = 0;
+    unsafe {
+        free_c_string(node.ref_id as *mut c_char);
+        free_c_string(node.role as *mut c_char);
+        free_c_string(node.name as *mut c_char);
+        free_c_string(node.value as *mut c_char);
+        free_c_string(node.description as *mut c_char);
+        free_c_string(node.hint as *mut c_char);
+        free_c_string_array(node.states, node.state_count);
+        node.ref_id = ptr::null();
+        node.role = ptr::null();
+        node.name = ptr::null();
+        node.value = ptr::null();
+        node.description = ptr::null();
+        node.hint = ptr::null();
+        node.states = ptr::null_mut();
+        node.state_count = 0;
+    }
 }
 
 /// # Safety
 /// `tree` must be null or point to a valid `AdNodeTree` previously returned
 /// by `flatten_tree` or `ad_get_tree`. After this call the tree is zeroed.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_free_tree(tree: *mut AdNodeTree) {
     crate::ffi_try::trap_panic_void(|| unsafe {
         if tree.is_null() {

crates/ffi/src/tree/get.rs

@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
-use crate::error::{set_last_error, AdResult};
+use crate::AdAdapter;
+use crate::error::{AdResult, set_last_error};
 use crate::ffi_try::trap_panic;
 use crate::tree::flatten::flatten_tree;
 use crate::types::{AdNodeTree, AdSnapshotSurface, AdTreeOptions, AdWindowInfo};
-use crate::AdAdapter;
 use agent_desktop_core::adapter::SnapshotSurface;
 use std::ptr;
 
@@ -58,7 +58,7 @@ fn core_surface(s: AdSnapshotSurface) -> SnapshotSurface {
 /// # Safety
 /// All pointers must be non-null. `win.id` and `win.title` must be
 /// valid UTF-8 C strings. `out` must be writable.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_get_tree(
     adapter: *const AdAdapter,
     win: *const AdWindowInfo,

crates/ffi/src/windows/focus.rs

@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
-use crate::error::{set_last_error, AdResult};
+use crate::AdAdapter;
+use crate::error::{AdResult, set_last_error};
 use crate::ffi_try::trap_panic;
 use crate::types::AdWindowInfo;
 use crate::windows::to_core::ad_window_to_core;
-use crate::AdAdapter;
 
 /// Brings `win` to the foreground on the current space. Returns
 /// `AD_RESULT_ERR_WINDOW_NOT_FOUND` when the referenced window no longer
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ use crate::AdAdapter;
 /// `adapter` must be a non-null pointer from `ad_adapter_create`. `win`
 /// must be a non-null pointer to an `AdWindowInfo` whose `id` and
 /// `title` fields are non-null, valid UTF-8 C strings.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_focus_window(
     adapter: *const AdAdapter,
     win: *const AdWindowInfo,

crates/ffi/src/windows/free_one.rs

@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ use crate::types::AdWindowInfo;
 /// `win` must be null or point to a valid `AdWindowInfo` whose string
 /// fields were allocated by this crate. Do not call on pointers inside
 /// an `AdWindowList` — free the list instead.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_release_window_fields(win: *mut AdWindowInfo) {
     trap_panic_void(|| unsafe {
         if win.is_null() {

crates/ffi/src/windows/list.rs

@@ -1,9 +1,9 @@
+use crate::AdAdapter;
 use crate::convert::string::decode_optional_filter;
 use crate::convert::window::{free_window_info_fields, window_info_to_c};
-use crate::error::{set_last_error, AdResult};
+use crate::error::{AdResult, set_last_error};
 use crate::ffi_try::{trap_panic, trap_panic_void};
 use crate::types::{AdWindowInfo, AdWindowList};
-use crate::AdAdapter;
 use agent_desktop_core::adapter::WindowFilter;
 use std::os::raw::c_char;
 use std::ptr;
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ use std::ptr;
 /// `adapter` must be valid. `out` must be a valid writable
 /// `*mut *mut AdWindowList`. `app_filter` may be null or a C string.
 /// Success produces a list handle freed via `ad_window_list_free`.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_list_windows(
     adapter: *const AdAdapter,
     app_filter: *const c_char,
@@ -50,7 +50,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_list_windows(
 
 /// # Safety
 /// `list` must be null or a pointer returned by `ad_list_windows`.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_window_list_count(list: *const AdWindowList) -> u32 {
     if list.is_null() {
         return 0;
@@ -63,7 +63,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_window_list_count(list: *const AdWindowList) -> u32
 ///
 /// # Safety
 /// `list` must be null or a pointer returned by `ad_list_windows`.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_window_list_get(
     list: *const AdWindowList,
     index: u32,
@@ -82,7 +82,7 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_window_list_get(
 ///
 /// # Safety
 /// `list` must be null or a pointer returned by `ad_list_windows`.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_window_list_free(list: *mut AdWindowList) {
     trap_panic_void(|| unsafe {
         if list.is_null() {

crates/ffi/src/windows/op.rs

@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
-use crate::error::{set_last_error, AdResult};
+use crate::AdAdapter;
+use crate::error::{AdResult, set_last_error};
 use crate::ffi_try::trap_panic;
 use crate::types::{AdWindowInfo, AdWindowOp, AdWindowOpKind};
 use crate::windows::to_core::ad_window_to_core;
-use crate::AdAdapter;
 use agent_desktop_core::action::WindowOp;
 
 /// Performs a window-manager operation (`Resize`, `Move`, `Minimize`,
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ use agent_desktop_core::action::WindowOp;
 /// # Safety
 /// `adapter` and `win` must be non-null pointers. `win.id` and
 /// `win.title` must be non-null valid UTF-8 C strings.
-#[no_mangle]
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
 pub unsafe extern "C" fn ad_window_op(
     adapter: *const AdAdapter,
     win: *const AdWindowInfo,

crates/ffi/tests/c_abi_actions.rs

@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
 mod common;
 
 use common::{
-    ad_execute_action, ad_execute_action_with_policy, default_action, with_adapter, AdActionResult,
-    AdNativeHandle, AdPolicyKind, AdResult,
+    AdActionResult, AdNativeHandle, AdPolicyKind, AdResult, ad_execute_action,
+    ad_execute_action_with_policy, default_action, with_adapter,
 };
 
 #[test]

crates/ffi/tests/c_abi_inputs.rs

@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
 mod common;
 
 use common::{
-    ad_launch_app, ad_list_windows, ad_resolve_element, c_char, with_adapter, AdNativeHandle,
-    AdRefEntry, AdResult, AdWindowInfo, AdWindowList,
+    AdNativeHandle, AdRefEntry, AdResult, AdWindowInfo, AdWindowList, ad_launch_app,
+    ad_list_windows, ad_resolve_element, c_char, with_adapter,
 };
 
 #[test]

crates/ffi/tests/c_abi_lifecycle.rs

@@ -1,10 +1,10 @@
 mod common;
 
 use common::{
+    AdAppList, AdFindQuery, AdNativeHandle, AdResult, AdWindowInfo, AdWindowList, CStr,
     ad_adapter_create, ad_adapter_destroy, ad_app_list_count, ad_app_list_free, ad_app_list_get,
     ad_check_permissions, ad_find, ad_free_handle, ad_last_error_code, ad_last_error_message,
     ad_list_apps, ad_list_windows, ad_window_list_count, ad_window_list_free, with_adapter,
-    AdAppList, AdFindQuery, AdNativeHandle, AdResult, AdWindowInfo, AdWindowList, CStr,
 };
 
 #[test]

crates/ffi/tests/common/mod.rs

@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ pub use agent_desktop_ffi::{
 pub use std::ffi::CStr;
 pub use std::os::raw::c_char;
 
-extern "C" {
+unsafe extern "C" {
     pub fn ad_adapter_create() -> *mut AdAdapter;
     pub fn ad_adapter_destroy(adapter: *mut AdAdapter);
     pub fn ad_check_permissions(adapter: *const AdAdapter) -> AdResult;